History of Assam
The history of Assam is the history of a
confluence of peoples from the east, west and the north; the confluence of
the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman cultures. Politically, it
has been invaded, but has never served as a vassal or a colony to an external
power till the advent of the Burmese in 1821 and subsequently the British in
1826.
The history of Assam is known from many sources.
The Ahom kingdom of medieval Assam maintained chronicles, called Buranjis,
written in the Ahom and the Assamese languages.
History of ancient Assam
comes from rock inscriptions and the many copper plates and royal grants the Kamarupa kings issued during their reign. Protohistory is reconstructed from folklore, epics like
Mahabharata, and two medieval texts compiled in the Assam region—the Kalika Purana and the Yogini Tantra.
Prehistory
Paleolithic cultures: The earliest
inhabitants of the region are assigned to the Middle Pleistocene period
(781,000 to 126,000 years ago) in the Rongram valley of Garo Hills.
The Paleolithic sites, which used handaxe-cleaver
tools, have affinities to the Abbevillio-Acheulean
culture. Other Paleolithic sites include those in the Daphabum
area of Lohit district in Arunachal
Pradesh which used stone tools from metamorphic rocks. The cave-based
Paleolithic sites at Khangkhui in
Ukhrul, Manipur, is placed in the Late
Pleistocene period.
There exists evidence of a microlithic culture in the Rongram
Valley of Garo Hills that lie between the neolithic layers and virgin soil. The microliths
here were made of dolerite, unlike those from the rest of India. Shreds of crude hand-made
pottery indicate that the microlithic people were
hunters and food-gatherers.
Neolithic cultures: Early Neolithic cultures
based on the unifacially flaked hand-axe in the Garo hills have developed in line with the Hoabinhian culture, and it is conjectured that this
region was the contact point for the Indian and the Southeast Asian cultures.
The Late neolithic
cultures have affinities with the spread of the Mon Khmer speaking people
from Malaysia and the Ayeyarwady valley and late neolithic
developments in South China. Since these
cultures have been dated to 4500-4000 BCE, the Assam sites are dated to
approximate that period.
These neolithic
sites, though widely spread, are concentrated in the hills and high grounds,
due possibly to the floods. These cultures performed shifting cultivation
called jhum, which is still practiced by some
communities in the region. Some typical sites are Daojali
Hading in North Cachar
hills, Sarutaru in Kamrup
district and Selbagiri in the Garo
Hills.
Metal
age:
There exists no archaeological evidence of Copper-Bronze or Iron age culture
in the region. This might seem as an impossibility
given that corresponding cultures have been discovered in Bengal as well as Southeast Asia. It can only be conjectured that metal
age sites in the region exist but have not yet been discovered.
Megalithic
cultures: Though the metal age seems to be missing in Assam, the Iron Age
Megalithic culture of South India finds an echo in the rich megalithic
culture in the region, which begins to appear earlier than the first
millennium BCE,[1] and which continues till today among the Khasi and the Naga people. The
affinity is with Southeast Asia. The megalithic
culture was the precursor of the fertility cult and the saktism
and the vajrayana Buddhism that followed.
Mythological
Assam
Protohistoric Assam is reconstructed from epics
and literature from early times (Mahabharata, Kalika
Purana, Yogini Tantra, etc.). The earliest political entity seems to
have been led by a non-Aryan Danava dynasty with Mahiranga mentioned as the first king. This dynasty was
removed by Narakasura. Naraka
appears to be a generic name for many kings belonging to the Naraka dynasty. According to legend, the last of the Naraka kings was killed by Krishna
and his son Bhagadatta took the throne. Bhagadatta is said to have participated in the
Mahabharata war with an army of "chinas, kiratas and dwellers of the eastern sea", thereby indicating
that his kingdom, Pragjyotisha, included part of Bangladesh.
The last in the Naraka dynasty was a ruler named Suparua.
Ancient
Assam
Major
kingdoms of Assam
Main article: Kamarupa
(History)
The historical account of Assam begins with the establishment
of Pushya Varman's Varman dynasty in the 4th century in the Kamarupa kingdom, which marks the beginning of Ancient
Assam. This dynasty was most likely of aboriginal origin, but drew its
lineage from Narakasura. The kingdom reached its
zenith under Bhaskarvarman in the 7th century. Xuanzang visited his court and left behind a significant
account. Bhaskar Varman
died without leaving behind an issue and the control of the country passed to
Salasthamba, who established the Mlechchha dynasty. After the fall of the Mlechchha dynasty in the late 9th century, a new ruler, Brahmapala was elected, who established the Pala dynasty. The last Pala
king was removed by the Gaur king, Ramapala, in
1110. But the two subsequent kings, Timgyadeva and Vaidyadeva, though established by the Gaur kings, ruled
mostly as independents and issued grants under the old Kamarupa
seals. The fall of subsequent kings and the rise of individual kingdoms in
the 12th century in place of the Kamarupa kingdom
marked the end of the Kamarupa kingdom and the
period of Ancient Assam.
Medieval
Assam
A
typical octagonal Ahom coin issued by Suramphaa Rajeswar Singha (1751-1769) of the Ahom
dynasty
See: Kamata
kingdom, Ahom kingdom, Kachari
kingdom, Chutiya kingdom, Bhuyan
chieftains.
The beginning of Medieval Assam is marked by
the rise of the Khen dynasty of the Kamata kingdom, established by Prithu
in the western part of the old Kamarupa Kingdom,
and the beginning of attacks by the Turks of Bengal. The Kamata
kingdom, named after the capital at Kamatapur, was
frequently attacked by the rulers of Bengal,
and Alauddin Hussain Shah
finally removed the last Khen king in 1498. But
Hussein Shah and subsequent rulers could not consolidate their rule in the Kamata kingdom, mainly due to the revolt by the Bhuyan chieftains and other local groups. In the 16th
century Viswa Singha of
the Koch tribe established the Koch dynasty in the Kamata
kingdom. The Koch dynasty reached its peak under his sons, Nara Narayan and Chilarai.
In the eastern part of the old Kamarupa kingdom, the Kachari
and the Chutiya kingdoms arose, with portions of
the north bank of the Brahmaputra
river controlled by the Bhuyan chieftains. In the
tract between the Kachari and the Chutiya kingdoms, a Shan group, led by Sukaphaa, established the Ahom
kingdom. The Ahom kingdom in the course of time
expanded into the Chutiya kingdom to its north and
pushed the Kachari kingdom further south. After the
death of Nara Narayan of the Koch dynasty in the
late 16th century, the Kamata kingdom broke into Koch
Bihar in the west and Koch Hajo in the east. The
rivalry between the two kingdoms resulted in the former allying with the Mughals and the latter with the Ahoms.
Most of the 17th century saw the Ahom-Mughal
conflicts, in which the Ahoms held the expansive Mughals at bay epitomized in the Battle of Saraighat of 1671, and which finally ended in 1682 with
the defeat of the Mughals at Itakhuli—and
the Ahom kingdom reached its westernmost boundary.
Though the Ahom kingdom saw itself as the inheritor
of the glory of the erstwhile Kamarupa kingdom and
aspired to extend itself to the Karatoya river, it
could never do so; though an Ahom general, Ton Kham under Swargadeo Suhungmung, reached the river once when he pursued a
retreating invading army in the 16th century.
After the Ahom
kingdom reached its zenith, problems within the kingdom arose in the 18th
century, when it lost power briefly to rebels of the Moamoria
rebellion. Though the Ahoms recaptured power, it
was beset with problems, leading to the Burmese invasion of Assam in the early 19th century.
With the defeat of the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese war and the
subsequent Treaty of Yandaboo, control of Assam
passed into the hands of the British, which marks the end of the Medieval
period.
Colonial
Assam
Main article: Colonial Assam
British
annexation of Assam
After the Burmese occupied Assam, the British began their
campaign against the Burmese. In 1824, lower Assam (originally Koch Hajo) was formally annexed. The following year the
British defeated the Burmese in upper Assam leading to the Treaty of Yandaboo. In this war against the Burmese the Ahoms did not help the British. In March 1828, lower Assam
was formally annexed. In the same year, the Kachari
kingdom was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse after the king Govinda Chandra was killed. In 1832, the Khasi king surrendered and the British increased their
influence over the Jaintia ruler. In 1833, upper Assam became a British protectorate under the
erstwhile ruler of the Ahom kingdom, Purandhar Singha, but in 1838
the region was formally annexed into the British empire.
With the annexation of the Maran/Matak territory in
the east in 1839, the annexation of Assam was complete.
Colonial
rule
Bengal Presidency (1826-1873): Assam
was included as a part of the Bengal Presidency. The annexation of upper Assam
is attributed to the successful manufacture of tea in 1837, and the beginning
of the Assam Company in 1839. Under the Wasteland Rules of 1838, it became
nearly impossible for natives to start plantations. After the liberalization
of the rules in 1854, there was a land rush. The Chinese staff that was
imported earlier for the cultivation of tea left Assam in 1843, when tea
plantations came to be tended by local labor solely, mainly by those
belonging to the Kachari group. From 1859 central
Indian labor was imported for the tea plantations. This labor, based on an
unbreakable contract, led to a virtual slavery of this labor group. The
conditions in which they were transported to Assam were so horrific that about
10% never survived the journey. The colonial government already had monopoly
over the opium trade.
There were immediate protests and revolts
against the British occupation. In 1828, two years after the Treaty of Yandaboo, Gomdhar Konwar rose in revolt against the British, but he was
easily suppressed. In 1830 Dhananjoy Burhagohain, Piyali Phukan and Jiuram Medhi rose in revolt, and they were sentenced to death.
In the Indian rebellion of 1857, the people of Assam offered resistance in the
form of non-cooperation, and Maniram Dewan and Piyali Baruah were executed for their roles. In 1861 peasants of
Nagaon gathered at Phulaguri
for a raiz mel (peoples'
assembly) to protest against taxes on betel-nut and paan.
Lt. Singer, a British officer got into a fracas with the peasants and was
killed, after which the protests were violently suppressed.
Chief Commissioner's Province (1874-1905):
In 1874, the Assam
region was separated from the Bengal Presidency, Sylhet
was added to it and its status was upgraded to a Chief Commissioner's
Province. The capital was at Shillong. The people
of Sylhet protested the inclusion in Assam.
Assamese, which was replaced by Bengali as the official language in 1837, was
reinstated alongside Bengali. In 1889, oil was discovered at Digboi giving rise to an oil industry. In this period Nagaon witnessed starvation deaths, and there was a
decrease in the indigenous population, which was more than adequately
compensated by the immigrant labor. Colonialism was well entrenched, and the
tea, oil and coal-mining industries were putting increasing pressure on the
agricultural sector which was lagging behind.
The peasants, burdened under the opium
monopoly and the usury by money lenders, rose again in revolt. Numerous raiz mels decided against paying
the taxes. The protests culminated in a bayonet charge against the protesters
at Patharughat in 1894. At least 15 were left dead
and in the violent repression that followed villagers were tortured and their
properties were destroyed or looted. In 1903, Assam Association was formed
with Manik Chandra Baruah
as the first secretary.
Eastern Bengal and Assam under Lt. Governor (1906-1912): Bengal
was partitioned and East Bengal was added to
the Chief Commissioner's Province. The new region, now ruled by a Lt.
Governor, had its capital at Dhaka. This
province had a 15-member legislative council in which Assam had two seats. The members
for these seats were recommended (not elected) by rotating groups of public
bodies.
The Partition of Bengal was strongly protested
in Bengal, and the people of Assam
were not happy either. The partition was finally annulled by a royal decree
in 1911. The Swadeshi movement (1905-1908) from
this period, went largely unfelt in Assam,
though it stirred some, most notably Ambikagiri Raychoudhury.
Beginning 1905 peasants from East Bengal
began settling down in the riverine tracts (char)
of the Brahmaputra
valley encouraged by the colonial government to increase agricultural
production. Between 1905 and 1921, the immigrant population from East Bengal increased four folds. The immigration
continued in post colonial times, giving rise to the Assam Agitation of 1979.
Assam Legislative Council (1912-1920): The
administrative unit was reverted to a Chief Commissioner's Province (Assam
plus Sylhet), with a Legislative Council added. The
Council had 25 members, of which the Chief Commissioner and 13 nominated
members formed the bulk. The other members were elected by local public
bodies like municipalities, local boards, landholders, tea planters and
Muslims.
As Assam got sucked into the
Non-Cooperation Movement, the Assam Association slowly transformed itself
into the Assam Pradesh Congress Committee (with 5 seats in AICC) in 1920-21.
Dyarchy (1921-1937): Under
the Government of India Act 1919 the Assam Legislative Council membership was
increased to 53, of which 33 were elected by special constituencies. The
powers of the Council were increased too; but in effect, the official group,
consisting of the Europeans, the nominated members etc. had the most
influence.
Assam Legislative Assembly (1937-1947):
Under the Government of India Act 1935, the Council was expanded into an
Assembly of 108 members, with even more powers. The period saw the sudden
rise of Gopinath Bordoloi
and Muhammed Saadulah and
their tussle for power and influence.
Post-colonial
Assam
In 1979, Assam flared into Assam Agitation
(or Assam Movement) a popular movement against illegal immigration. The
movement, led AASU and AAGSP, set an agitational program
to compel the government to identify and expel illegal immigrants and prevent
new immigration. The agitational programs were
largely non-violent, but there were incidents of acute violence, like the
Nellie Massacre. It ended in 1985 following the Assam Accord that was signed
by the agitation leaders and the Government of India. The agitation leaders
formed a political party, Asom Gana
Parishad, which came to power in the state of Assam
in the Assembly elections of 1985.
Notes
1. ^ The Megalithic cite at Marakdola in the Khasi Hills
were dated to 1296+/-100 BCE (Rao, S. N, (Singh
1991:120))
References
• Baruah, S.
L. (1993), Last Days of Ahom Monarchy, New Delhi
• Borpujari,
H. K., ed. (1990), The Comprehensive History of Assam : from the Pre-historic
Times to the Twelfth Century A.D., Guwahati
• Choudhury,
P. C. (1966), The History of Civilisation of the
People of Assam
to the Twelfth Century A.D., Guwahati
• Gait, Edward A (1906), A History of Assam, Calcutta.
• Guha, Amalendu (1977), Planter-Raj to
Swaraj, Delhi
• Singh, Jai Prakash
& Sengupta, Gautam,
eds. (1991), Archeology of North-Eastern India,
New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications
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